Error and Correctness Traps

Overview

Common bugs grouped by domain: floats that won't compare equal, retries that hammer a downed service, singletons that wreck testability, and others. When you write code in one of these domains, stop and run the matching checks before you commit. Draws on nine contributors to 97 Things Every Programmer Should Know (CC-BY-3.0; see principles.md for citations and links).

This is a rigid skill. Jump to the sub-section that matches what you're writing and run that sub-section's checks.

These checks matter most when code will reach real users in production. In MVPs, prototypes, internal dev tools, and one-off scripts where the architecture is still in flux, prefer the simplest thing that works.

When to invoke

Invoke when you're about to:

• Add or change error-handling around a call that can fail
• Compare, sum, or accumulate floating-point numbers
• Write concurrent, parallel, or threaded code, or share mutable state between threads
• Call a remote process, web service, database, or another machine
• Introduce a singleton or any globally-shared mutable state
• Choose a data structure or algorithm on a path that runs often or on large inputs
• Add or change log statements that may fire at high volume

Non-triggers — do NOT invoke for

• Renaming a local variable inside one function
• Adding a docstring to an existing function
• Fixing a typo in a comment
• Formatting-only changes handled by a formatter
• Adjusting a config value in a config file with no logic change
• Reading code without modifying it
• An early-stage MVP or prototype where the architecture is still in flux
• An internal dev tool, debugging endpoint, or one-off script
• Throwaway code expected to be replaced before reaching users

If the change touches one of these domains even slightly, invoke anyway — the per-domain check is short and the bugs are not.

Checks by domain

Errors (97/21, 97/26, 97/29)

1. Distinguish business exceptions from technical ones. A technical exception means the system can't proceed — bad arguments, broken DB connection, programming error. Let it bubble to a top-level handler that puts the system in a safe state (rollback, log, alert, friendly user message); the caller can't fix it. A business exception is part of the contract — withdrawing from an empty account, booking an unavailable slot — and is an alternative return path the caller is expected to handle. Give them separate types or hierarchies; mixing them blurs the contract. (Bergh Johnsson, 97/21.)
2. Never write the empty catch. try { ... } catch (...) {} silently swallows everything. Same for ignoring return codes (printf's return value, write()'s short-write count) and pretending errno doesn't exist. Example: a service-call wrapper swallows every exception and returns null, so every downstream caller has to invent their own theory of what null means. Expose erroneous conditions in your interfaces; if handling errors feels onerous, the interface is wrong. (Goodliffe, 97/26.)
3. Don't rely on unexplained magic. If your change depends on behavior nobody can explain (build picks a DLL by load order, deployment reads an undocumented env var, a job runs because of a side effect in a config file), surface it in your summary to the user before shipping — don't bury the dependency. (Griffiths, 97/29.)

Numerics (97/33)

4. Never compare floats with ==. 0.1 + 0.2 != 0.3 in IEEE 754 — the canonical demonstration. Compare with a tolerance appropriate to the magnitude of the values involved (≈ ε|x|, where ε is machine epsilon — ~1e-7 for float, ~1e-16 for double).
5. Watch for catastrophic cancellation. Subtracting nearly-equal floats promotes roundoff to the most significant digits. Example: solving x² - 100000x + 1 = 0 directly via the quadratic formula gives a wildly wrong small root because -b + sqrt(b² - 4) cancels; compute one root and derive the other from r1 * r2 = c/a. Same shape of error appears in any series with alternating signs of similar magnitude.
6. Don't use float for money. Use a fixed-point or decimal type. Floats are for scientific calculation where you accept ε-level error; financial code does not accept it. (Allison, 97/33.)

Concurrency & IPC (97/41, 97/57)

7. Default to message passing over shared mutable state. When you reach for a lock around shared data, ask first whether the data could be owned by one process/actor that others message. CSP-style designs (Erlang, Go channels, actor frameworks in mainstream languages) sidestep most race / deadlock / livelock bugs by construction. Reserve shared-memory + locks for cases you have measured and understood. (Winder, 97/57.)
8. Count IPCs per user stimulus, not lines of code. Each remote call is non-trivial latency; sequential calls add. Example: ORM lazy-loading produces 1,000 sequential 10ms DB calls for one page render — minimum 10s response time before any rendering work. Ratios in the thousands appear routinely in slow apps. Apply parsimony (one round-trip carrying the right data), parallelism (overall latency = longest call, not sum), or caching. (Stafford, 97/41.)
9. Retry with backoff and a cap, never in a tight loop. Example: while (!call()) call(); against a downed service hammers it the moment it comes back. Exponential backoff, jitter, and a max-retries ceiling are the minimum; idempotency on the server side is what makes retry safe at all.

Limits & Performance (97/46, 97/89)

10. Know the complexity of the data structure you picked. Linked list vs. hash vs. balanced tree on a million items is the difference between snappy and unusable. Pick by access pattern (lookup-heavy → hash; ordered iteration → tree; tiny + cache-friendly → array), not by what's familiar. (van Winkel, 97/89.)
11. Don't recompute invariants inside loops. Example: for (i = 0; i < strlen(s); ++i) — strlen runs every iteration, scanning the whole string each time, turning O(n) work into O(n²). Hoist the length out. The same shape applies to repeated DB lookups, repeated config parses, and repeated regex compilations inside hot loops. (van Winkel, 97/89.)
12. Respect the cache hierarchy when it dominates. Register and L1 are nanoseconds; RAM is ~20ns; disk is ~10ms; network is ~20–100ms — orders of magnitude apart. A "worse" big-O algorithm with a predictable access pattern can beat a "better" one that thrashes cache. When perf matters, measure rather than reason from complexity alone. (Colvin, 97/46.)

Globals & Singletons (97/73)

13. Resist the singleton. Most singletons encode a single-instance assumption that turns out to be premature, broadcast across the design as hidden coupling. They wreck unit-test independence (you can't substitute a mock), introduce subtle multi-threading bugs (naive locking slow, double-checked locking famously broken in several languages), and have no defined cleanup order at shutdown. Example: a Logger.getInstance() called from every layer means tests can't intercept output, can't run in parallel, and inherit log state from previous tests.
14. If you genuinely need one instance, hide it behind an interface. Restrict the global access to a few well-defined construction sites; everywhere else, accept the dependency through a parameter typed by interface. Callers don't know whether a singleton or a fresh object satisfies the interface — and tests can substitute either. (Saariste, 97/73.)

Production resilience (RI/*)

When the call will run under load against a downstream that can fail, the per-call hardening is the first write. These checks matter most in production code.

15. Set an explicit timeout on every remote call. Library defaults are wrong (None, "infinity", "many minutes"). Pick a per-call budget based on the downstream's realistic latency plus margin, and cap retries inside that budget. (RI/Timeout.)
16. Wrap critical downstreams in a circuit breaker. Tracked per-downstream failures; once threshold crossed, fail fast locally for a window; probe; close on success. Distinct from retry/backoff: this is "should we attempt at all right now." (RI/CircuitBreaker.)
17. Bulkhead resource pools per downstream. Separate thread pools, connection pools, or queues per external dependency so one stalled downstream cannot exhaust capacity for healthy ones. (RI/Bulkhead.)
18. Bounded queues only. An unbounded queue eventually exhausts memory under load. Pick a cap and an explicit reject policy (drop oldest, drop newest, backpressure to caller). (RI/Backpressure.)
19. Fail fast when the request cannot succeed. Validate at the entry point; check circuit-breaker state and feature flags before expensive setup; return a clear error before holding DB connections, locks, or downstream quota. (RI/FailFast.)

Red Flags

These thoughts mean STOP — apply the domain check before committing:

Thought	Reality
"I'll throw the same exception type for both — caller handles either way."	Technical and business exceptions are different contracts. Mixing them means callers can't tell what to guard against beforehand vs. handle after. (97/21)
"Empty catch is fine, the error can't happen here."	"Can't happen" is how silent corruption ships. Log, rethrow, or surface the error — never swallow. (97/26)
"Nobody on the team knows how this build step works, but it works."	Magic that no one owns is a fault waiting for the day the magic stops. Find the person who knows or document it now. (97/29)
"if (a == b) for floats is fine, the values are computed the same way."	0.1 + 0.2 != 0.3. Use a tolerance scaled to magnitude, or use a decimal type. (97/33)
"I'll use double for the price column — it's faster than Decimal."	Floats accumulate roundoff; money does not forgive roundoff. Use fixed-point or decimal for currency. (97/33)
"I'll wrap a lock around the shared map — that fixes the race."	Locks around shared mutable state are where deadlocks and lost updates hide. Prefer message passing; lock only when measured and understood. (97/57)
"Failed call → just retry in a loop until it works."	A retry loop without backoff and a cap will hammer the service the moment it recovers. Backoff + jitter + ceiling, and require idempotency on the server. (97/41)
"I'll lazy-load each related row — it's cleaner."	One page = thousands of sequential round-trips = visibly broken latency. Count IPCs per stimulus; batch, parallelize, or cache. (97/41)
"It's just for (i = 0; i < strlen(s); ++i) — looks normal."	strlen runs every iteration; an O(n) loop becomes O(n²). Hoist invariants out of hot loops. (97/89)
"Linked list is fine, n won't get that big."	"Won't get that big" is how production timeouts are born. Pick the structure by access pattern and confirm with measurement. (97/89, 97/46)
"Singleton — there'll only ever be one."	Single-instance is an assumption that ages badly, and the global access point destroys testability. Hide behind an interface, inject the dependency. (97/73)
"I'll let the HTTP client default the timeout — it's fine."	Defaults are None or hours. Held connections, threads, and queue slots add up under load. Set an explicit per-call timeout. (RI/Timeout)
"The downstream's flaky — I'll just retry."	Retry without a circuit breaker piles load on a service that's already failing. Wrap critical downstreams in a breaker; fail fast locally when open. (RI/CircuitBreaker)
"One pool for all downstreams keeps the code simpler."	One slow third party fills the pool and the whole service stops. Bulkhead per downstream; isolate failure domains. (RI/Bulkhead)
"I'll buffer events in an in-memory queue — it'll catch up."	Unbounded queues exhaust memory under sustained load. Pick a cap and a reject policy; let backpressure inform callers. (RI/Backpressure)
"I'll validate after the DB lookup — saves a branch."	Late failure holds DB connections, locks, and quota for a request that can't succeed. Validate at the entry; fail fast. (RI/FailFast)

What "done" looks like

You are done when all of the following are true for every domain below your change touches:

• Errors: technical and business exceptions have distinct types; no empty catches; any "magic" the change relies on has a named owner or a documented restart path.
• Numerics: no == between floats; tolerances scaled to magnitude; money uses a decimal type; subtractions of near-equal magnitudes have been audited for cancellation.
• Concurrency & IPC: shared mutable state is justified or replaced by message passing; remote calls per user stimulus are counted and bounded; retries have backoff, jitter, and a ceiling.
• Limits & Performance: the data structure matches the access pattern; no invariants recomputed inside hot loops; perf claims are measured, not reasoned.
• Globals & Singletons: any new singleton is justified, narrowly scoped, and accessed through an interface that can be substituted in tests.
• Production resilience: every remote call has an explicit timeout; critical downstreams have a circuit breaker; resource pools are bulkheaded per downstream; queues are bounded with an explicit reject policy; the request fails fast when it cannot succeed.

If any box that applies to your change is unchecked, you are not done. Either finish, or revert and re-plan.

Principles in this skill

#	Principle	Author
97/21	Distinguish Business Exceptions from Technical	Dan Bergh Johnsson
97/26	Don't Ignore That Error!	Pete Goodliffe
97/29	Don't Rely on "Magic Happens Here"	Alan Griffiths
97/33	Floating-Point Numbers Aren't Real	Chuck Allison
97/41	Inter-Process Communication Affects Application Response Time	Randy Stafford
97/46	Know Your Limits	Greg Colvin
97/57	Message Passing Leads to Better Scalability in Parallel Systems	Russel Winder
97/73	Resist the Temptation of the Singleton	Sam Saariste
97/89	Use the Right Algorithm and Data Structure	Jan Christiaan "JC" van Winkel
RI/Timeout	Always Set a Timeout	Michael Nygard
RI/CircuitBreaker	Circuit Breaker	Michael Nygard
RI/Bulkhead	Bulkhead	Michael Nygard
RI/Backpressure	Backpressure / Bounded Queues	Michael Nygard
RI/FailFast	Fail Fast	Michael Nygard

See principles.md for the long-form distillations, citations, and source links.